Treatment of Adult Mentally Ill Offenders Research Paper

Treatment of Adult Mentally Ill Offenders - Research Paper Example   Besides, the number of inmates has tripled in the last threes decades with the notion that jails and prisons in the U.S have been converted to new mental hospitals. In recent research, an infamous prison in the state registered 33.8 % inmates who are mentally ill as per psychiatric diagnosis with chronic mental illness registering a higher rate as compared to non-chronic mental illnesses. Among all offenders in prison, depression, substance use disorders and anxiety or panic disorders are the three most common categories of diagnoses (Langan & David, 2002). â€Å"In the movie, The New Asylums by Miri Navasky & Karen O’Connor (2005), today there are over 500,000 mentally ill people who are held in jails and prison throughout America, 10 times the 50,000 that remain in the mental hospitals, although, most part of this movie shows higher percent of male inmates as compared to female inmates, numerous scenes of mentally ill people are common in the streets throughout America. According to Fred Cohen, Prison Mental Health Consultant, those who are mentally ill in the streets end up going to mental hospitals. ... Treatment in Prison All over the world and more so in the United States of America, there have been differing theories that concern the treatment that is given to prisoners as well as the services that should be provided to them in the current penal system (Langan & David,2002). In any criminal system, there are simple choices of the verdict that are given to the convicts; they are either reformative or punitive. The main aim of any reform system is to take criminals and ensuring that they are helped to move past the issues they have at hand. Punitive treatment entails the use of physical pain and torture as punishment for committing crimes. In fact, United States has been described as a punitive nation. Langan & David, 2002 argues that the main goal of the punitive system is to ensure that criminals see and understand that participating in crimes is not worth at all. A good example of a punitive method to offenders is by taking them to boot camps. Booty camps are governmental correc tional and penal systems that are predominant in the United States. Having modeled to resemble the armed forces recruit training camps, these programs are based on distress incarcerations that have military techniques. Offenders get punishment such as stocking although it has been scalped off in the recent past. In essence, critics say that these kinds of programs serve only to frustrate the offenders and do not make much distinction in their lives as is intended apart from having them pay for their crimes in harsh ways. In addition, most of the sentences that are given to these offenders cannot be easily reduced even if the offenders show sign of improvement or change. Rehabilitative penalty simply means re-enabling or making fit again prisoners to enable them to rejoin society.  Ã‚  

Antibacterial Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Antibacterial - Essay Example Their benefit in the medical field and personal hygiene notwithstanding, antimicrobial exhibit certain side effects. Introduction Antibacterial are host of compounds or substances that inhibit or retard the growth of bacteria. They belong to a larger family of compounds known as antimicrobials among which are antifungal and antiviral compounds. Chemically, antibacterial can be isolated from living organisms, obtained by chemical modification of natural compounds or synthesized (Von Nussbaum, 2006). Aminoglycosides, such as streptomycin, are classes of antibacterials that are isolated from living systems. Compounds, such as sulfonamides, that have antibacterial property are obtained solely by chemical synthesis. Semi-synthetic modification of natural compounds also yield antibacterial compounds such as penicillin. The biological activity of antibacterials differs. Some function by killing the target bacteria as in bactericidal agents, while others slow down the growth or reproduction of the bacteria as in bacteriostatic agents (Calderon and Sabundayo, 2007). Bactericidal agents are further grouped as bactericidal disinfectants, bactericidal antiseptic, and bactericidal antibiotics. Several factors, which include the host defense mechanism, the location of the infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial, affect the outcome of antibacterial therapy with antibacterial compound (Pankey and Sabeth, 2004). The concentration of the antibacterial also affects its biological activity of antibacterials, thus in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of the antibacterial agent being investigated. To ascertain the drug efficacy of an antibacterial, its antibacterial activity is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and results of other pharmacological parameters obtained during clinical studies. Mode of action of antibacterials The mode of action of antibacterial differs; indeed, this difference offers a criterion for classification of antibacterials as either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. Some bactericidal agents, such as penicillin, target the bacterial cell wall, while some, for example polymixins, disrupt cell membrane, and another group of bactericidal agents, for instance sulfonamides, interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (Calderon and Sabundayo, 2007). Antibacterial agents that are bacteriostatic in action, such as tetracyclines, target protein synthesis and eventually slow down the growth or reproduction of the bacteria (Calderon and Sabundayo, 2007). Bactericidal agents have found use as disinfectants, antiseptics and antibiotics. For instance, chloroxylenol, a phenolic, is the active antibacterial ingredient in Dettol (Acenzi, 1996), a household disinfectant and antiseptic. Figure 1. Chemical structure of chloroxylenol Chloroxylenol functions by disrupting the cell membrane potential of bacteria. Potassium permanganate, KmnO4, is a strong oxidizing agent that has find application as an antibacterial agent. It is used as antiseptic and disinfectant for treating aquariums and swimming pools. Mere exposure of KmnO4 to sunlight yields oxygen through its decomposition. 2 KMnO4(s) > K2MnO4(s) + MnO2(s) + O2(g) The oxygen oxidizes the cell membrane of the bacteria resulting in the loss of structure and ultimately, cell lysis and death of the bacteria.

King Leopolds Ghost Essay Example for Free

King Leopolds Ghost Essay Between 1880 and 1920, the population of the Congo was slashed in half: some ten million people were victims of murder, starvation, exhaustion, exposure, disease, and a plummeting birth rate. Why do you think this massive carnage has remained virtually unknown in the United States and Europe? During all this death there was only a few who would go down into the Congo because of all its dangers. So with hardly anyone already going down there and those who did brave the dangers would usually come back insane from a disease of some sort, there was just not enough evidence to prove how bad it was really getting even with those who made it out fine. There was also no communication possible only by mail and considering the dangers no persons would risk their life to take a letter to and from the jungle. So how can you, with not enough brave people to go down there, get the information out to the world. But even those who got it out and tried to spread the word would be persecuted for saying such things because nobody wanted to help them because that would put their life in danger. No one in their right mind would even venture down to that part of Africa. So with no phones, pagers, computers, or mail to get the word out and sickness and animals killing most that went down there. Even those who go looking for these camps cannot usually find them because there in rural eras of the jungle which, for some, are impossible to attain. There was just no possible way to get word out to the rest of the world to get help. Now even with all the technology to find and go to them we still don’t hear much of them. We have all the vaccines to fight off all the disease and help the dying people in Africa. So even though we have all that still not much people want to help because they are caught up in the world they are living in and nothing else matters until they get what they need and want. The human race is selfish and only looks out for themselves. Question 6 The European conquest and plunder of the Congo and the rest of Africa was brutal, but so was the European settlement of North America and, long before that, the conquest of most of European by the Romans. Hasn’t history always proceeded in this way? Well yea, history has a way of repeating itself. Nothing only happens one time in history. There is always going to be those crazy Hitler type people out there and those who go power drunk and take over their country and then try to take over the world. And yes, whenever you go exploring a new place it’s going to be difficult. Have you ever heard someone say’ â€Å"I went exploring a new continent and it was easy. † There is so much that goes into exploration. You need tools, maps, guides, protection from animals and natives. Pretty much anything new you do is not going to be easy for you to do. Anything you do needs time, practice, and plans, but most important in needs to be organized. If nothing was organized the world would be in chaos. So yes history has and will be forever keep repeating itself to keep balance and stability to the world. It will always have its ups and always have its downs. It doesn’t matter who or what you do to try and prevent it. God has established the status quo and there is nothing anyone can do about it. Question 13 Hochschild quotes Roger Casements as insisting to Edmond Morel’s â€Å"I do not agree with you that England and America are the two great humanitarian powers †¦ [they are] materialistic first and humanitarian only a century after. † What evidence supports or refuses Casement’s judgment? Would Casement be justified in making the same statement today? Now back in that time we were more of a humanitarian country because first of all we didn’t have all the same technology we did today. Second we were pretty much a new country and we were trying to make a good name for us. Then third we went to war for other which was no cause of our own and all we did was help out less fortunate countrys than us. See now during this time it is a little different. We have all sorts of distractions. We have technology, we have more murder, and we are being more protective of our people. We use to go to war for no cause just to help out but now when we are attacked we don’t want to go to war. So you can say we are and have been a little of both the whole time. Back then we went to war to help people now we are sending missionaries to camps around the world to help people. But in the end let’s hope that we become more

Reviewing Biological And Psychological Crime Theories Criminology Essay

Reviewing Biological And Psychological Crime Theories Criminology Essay Mans attempt to understand the causes of crime and deviance predates written history. Prehistoric skeletal remains show evidence of primitive cranial surgical procedures. This appears to indicate that, during these more primitive times, people thought spiritual evils in the mind caused crime and deviance. Cranial surgery was the effort to open the mind and allow the unwanted spiritual influences to escape. Since these early times, many theoretical perspectives concerning crime and deviance have emerged. Biological, psychological, and sociological theories are the most widely known. This paper will focus on Cesare Lombrosos biological theory of anthropological criminology (atavism) and Gabriel Tardes psychological modeling theory of imitation. Biological crime theories began in the 16th century with the ideas of J. Babtiste della Porte (1535 1615). He was the founder of human physiognomy. Human physiognomy is the study of physical features to determine an individuals characteristics. Early biological theorists studied physical features to make assessments about a persons criminal propensity (Kroeber, 2006). Fundamentally, if criminality is inherited, then an offender can be distinguished by physical atavistic stigmata. The physical appearance, they believed, distinguishes criminal types and the positivist method was the biological approach these scholars chose. These ideas differed from the ideas of contemporary scholars in that they also believed in lower forms of life, anecdotes, and folk wisdom as explanations of crime (Farrington, D., 1996). The biological explanations of crime available today include abnormalities of the brain, brain damage, head trauma, genetic predispositions, vitamin deficiencies, hormonal imbalances, hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), lack of serotonin (neurotransmitters) in the brain, and blood abnormalities. Since many criminologists academically center on the social sciences, theories of deviant behavior based on biology are not widely accepted in the field of criminology. Society tends to reject biological explanations of crime because of the belief that biological equals hopelessness. Schmalleger (2006) states that some biological theories simply show abnormalities to be facilitators of crime, rather than determinants of criminal behavior. Biological crime theories involve various fundamental assumptions. These assumptions are the brain is the center of behavior and personalities, the manifestations of behaviors, to include criminal propensities, are in some form gene tically predisposed, differences in crime rates among races and gender are a result of biological differences but will only show in certain environments, biological crime facilitators and determinants may be passed to succeeding generations, and human behavior is instinctive and characteristic of all organisms (Schmalleger, 2006, p. 144). One of the most renowned scientific biological theorists was Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909). Lombroso coined the term atavism to suggest that criminal behaviors were the result of primitive impulses that successfully survived the evolutionary process. Lombroso and his students used the ideas of Charles Darwins theory of evolution and discredited the classical ideas of Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. Lombroso believed in determinism rather than the ideas of free will. Free will is the idea that all individuals have an equal opportunity to make choices and to act criminal. Lombrosos class of thought is known as the Italian School. Lombroso theorized physical characteristics would represent primitive impulses. The characteristics that he found to be common among criminals, he labeled, atavistic (Ellwood, 2000). Atavism is a real or supposed evolutionary throwback. Atavists possess an unexpected appearance resembling the primitive traits of man or the reversion of such a trait that was present in the lineage of the past. This representative trait is not seen often in intervening generations after primitive creatures. Atavisms can occur when the previous genes for such phenotypical features are preserved in DNA and are dominantly shown. These genes may be present in organisms but not expressed in dominate features (Farrington, D. 1996). Social Darwinists frequently used the ideas of atavism. This class of thinkers claimed that inferior races would display atavistic traits and those individuals expressing atavistic characteristics are an inferior form of their primitive race. The notion of atavism is saturated with the ideas of evolution as a progress towards a greater complexity and superior ability of man (Farrington, D. 1996). Statistical evidence and the idea that physical traits indicate criminality has not been substantiated. However, the concept that physical traits can indicate the likelihood of criminal behavior is still popular in some circles. Lombrosos work was the result of studying postmortem bodies of executed offenders and deceased criminals. He measured the body in many different ways. He took measurements from 65 executed criminals and 832 living offenders and compared them with the measurements taken from 390 soldiers. Lombroso used this data to identify consistencies between traits and characterized his findings as criminal features. Among the traits he found to be predictive of criminal behavior, were index finger length, fleshy cheeks, close eyes, large teeth, lobe-less ears, high defined cheek bones, crooked nose, large lips, abnormal number of ribs, and different eye colors. Lombroso hypothesized that possession of certain combinations of traits could be used to identify a specific type of offender. For example, the classification for habitual homicide is cold, glassy eyes, a large nose, a strong jaw; large cheekbones, thin lips; and dark, curly hair (Schmalleger, 2006, p. 147). Psychological crime theories available today include Frustration-Aggression Theory, Modeling Theory, Behavior Theory, and Self-Control Theory. Gabriel  Tarde (1843-1904) first introduced the psychological modeling theory of imitation. This psychological perspective states that people learn how to behave by modeling themselves like others whom they have observed. The suppositions that provide the basis for his theory, as with most early theories, are analysis of the individual, personality is the major motivational element, criminal behavior is purposeful for the individual, normality is defined by social consensus, and crime results from inappropriate mental processes. Furthermore, inappropriate mental processes have many causes to include diseases of the mind, inappropriate learning or improper conditioning, and poor role models (Schmalleger, 2006, p. 183). Psychocriminologists generally focus on personality disorders that include psychopaths, sociopaths, and antisocial personalit ies to explain criminal behavior.   Gabriel Tarde believed that the laws of imitation were the basis of any society. He rejected the biological theories of crime proposed by Cesare Lombroso and other criminologists of his time, stating that certain inferences of law or regularities govern the social world. Tarde developed a behavior theory based on three laws of imitation. Tardes first law of imitation states that individuals that regularly and closely interact with each other behave similarly. The application of this law can be seen in groups such as white supremacists. These individuals focus most of their time and attention on ideas of white superiority and actively promote these ideas. Due to their close interaction with one another, they tend to exhibit the same behavior. The second law rests on the premise that imitation follows a hierarchical pattern. In the United States Marine Corps, Marines of junior rank often emulate their leaders. This idea of hierarchical imitation is positively reinforced through educati on and training. Tardes third law is that of insertion. This law conveys the notion that new ideas, modus operandi, or methods reinforce prior successful patterns or replace failed or less efficient methods. In the Marine Corps, leadership ideas that have been used for over 230 years are reinforced everyday because they are successful. At the same time, new methods for implementing those ideas are replacing outdated, less efficient methods (Schmalleger, 2006, p. 194). There are presumed advantages and disadvantages to both biological and psychological crime theories. In the criminology field, biological theories are advantageous because they provide a basis for the hypothesis that criminal behavior can be predicted by physical traits, chemical make-up, and genetic factors. In theory, once identified, criminal behavior can be treated through various medical therapies to include behavior modification, hormonal therapy, and gene therapy. The disadvantages of biological crime causation theories generally lie with methodological problems and the types of analysis employed to gather statistical data. Schmalleger (2006) states that biological studies often fail to include proper testing groups resulting in flawed forms of analysis. Glenn D. Walters and Thomas W. White, critics of biological perspectives, note the shortcomings of biological crime theories. They assert that the degree of criminality is improperly established, often based on one arrest, sam ple groups are not varied or realistically selected, results are left open for interpretation thus detracting from the integrity of the research, and findings from outside of the United States may not be applicable (Schmalleger, 2006, p. 172). Another disadvantageous aspect of biological crime theories is the potential impact on public policy. If biological studies are conducted that show credible information to the public regarding a certain biological trait for criminality, the outcry for legislation would be great. For example, if all criminals have gene-x, the people would demand laws be put in place that protected society from gene-x carriers. However, data obtained from biological crime studies is not consistent but can be interpreted. Furthering the x-gene example, while all criminals have the x-gene not all carriers of the x-gene are criminals. This could result in unfair practices against some innocent carriers. Psychological crime theories are beneficial to investigations today because they provide the framework used in developing typologies of psychological profiles utilized to identify personality characteristics of criminal individuals. Psychological explanations assist the investigator in understanding the criminal mind thereby increasing the chances of apprehension. Additionally, if crime causation factors are identified, offenders may be treated more efficiently, possibly reducing recidivism. Psychological crime causation theories also pose disadvantages to the field of criminology. D.A. Andrews and James Bonta (1994) discredit contemporary psychological theories stating that psychological and sociological criminology findings are not obtained through objective and empirical means therefore representing weak psychology in mainstream society. Another disadvantage of psychological theories is that they are more often applicable to sexual and violent crimes, include untestable postulations, and fail to account for situational factors (OConnor, T. 2004). In conclusion, it can be inferred that no one theory definitively explains crime. Biological and psychological crime theories address crime and deviance explanations from different, but equally feasible perspectives. The early biological ideas of Cesare Lombroso stimulated the emergence of more contemporary theories. Although his crime explanations are not widely used today, they provided a foundation for further thought in the criminology field. Similarly, Gabriel Tarde proposed an alternate crime explanation with his theory of imitation. Tardes thoughts encouraged social thinkers to expound on his ideas and develop more contemporary crime theories that are in practice today. Both biological and psychological explanations for criminality and deviance present advantages and disadvantages but it must be noted that each provide practical value to criminologists today.

Affirmative Action :: essays research papers

Affirmative action has two distinct meanings. The first definition of affirmative action refers to individuals having equal opportunity without regard to their sex, race, and religion. The second meaning is almost exactly the same, except that it is directly related to sex, race, and religion. Affirmative action was brought about to ensure the freedom and rid of discrimination in many different situations. For example, many "Upper Class " jobs, such as government employment, were rarely ever given to the minority classes. Although, affirmative action has had numerous negative impacts despite the fact that it was created for the good of society.(http://www.adversity.net/Terms_Definitions/TERMS/Affirmative_Action.htm) The United States authorized the Civil Rights in 1964, as a result, many problems were brought about in society and the way it functioned. Many disadvantages and consequences were faced for people with physical complications such as those with handicaps or the elderly. In time, the problem became greater and something had to be done in order to resolve this issue. On September 24, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson made Executive Order #11246 official at Howard University which required federal employees "to take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed..without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." Without knowing so, President Johnson had created one of the most problematic and ironically one of the most segregated legislations.(Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia) At first affirmative action was made in order to assist the under privileged people of America which was highly discriminated against when the Civil Rights act was brought about. There was social conflict, economic stress, and racial tension did not make the position of those with no source of income any easier. Was it a coincidence that most entrepreneur, business leaders, and managing positions in the United States was held by white males? It did not take long before the majority realized that the business leaders and corporate executives were discriminating towards minorities and those not of the same race, religion, or sex. President Johnson's choice was highly approved by most of the middle and lower class people. Naturally, the leaders, executives, and managers did not think highly of President Johnson.(Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia) Not so long after the legislation was passed, many minority groups were already seeking revenge and were looking to take advantage of the newly implemented affirmative action laws. The main minority group that was affected by the new laws were those of African-American decent.

American Imperialism Essay -- US Imperialism Power Expansion

Imperialism, defined by Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary, is "the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion of a nation especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas"(Merriam-Webster). During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the United States pursued an aggressive policy of expansionism, extending its political and economic influence around the globe. The United States has become an empire. Although the United States has less power – in the sense of control over other countries’ internal behavior – than Britain did when it ruled a quarter of the globe, the United States now has more power resources relative to other countries than Britain had at its imperialistic peak. American Imperialism was driven by a need for markets and raw materials, as well as the desire for power and success. The United States increasingly appears to be an im perial power. Manifest Destiny was the driving force responsible for changing the face of American history. Manifest Destiny, described by Dictionary.com, is a policy of imperialistic expansion defended as necessary or benevolent. It is the 19th century doctrine that gave the right to the United States to expand through North America. In 1845, a democratic leader and influential editor by the name of John L. O'Sullivan gave the movement its name. In an attempt to explain America's â€Å"thirst† for expansion, and to present a defense for America's claim to new territories he wrote: ".... the right of our manifest destiny to over spread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federaltive de... ...ong the Kuwait-Saudi Arabian border (www.deoxy.org). It is only logical, due to the previous history of the United States, that one can only conclude that our invasion of Iraq is only to pursue imperialistic ambitions. Throughout the United States history, imperialism has been prevalent. Even with its mother country Britain, when Britain had controlled a quarter of the Earth. The imperialistic ambitions primarily started with our Manifest Destiny philosophy. In many of today’s magazines, newspapers, and articles, they theorize, question, and argue about the question: Is the United States an empire? The answer to that question is: Yes, America is an Empire. A lot of Americans are calling this the Age of American Imperialism. In conclusion, America is an imperial power. Works Cited http://www.merriam-webster.com/ http://www.fff.org http://www.deoxy.org

Developmental Delays Essay

1 in every 6 U.S. children are diagnosed with a developmental disability, according to a new Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention study published online in the journal Pediatrics Monday. The represents an increase of 17% between 1997 and 2008 alone. Child development refers to the process in which children go through changes in skill development during predictable time periods, called developmental milestones. Developmental delay occurs when children have no reached these milestones by the expected time period. For example, if the normal range for learning to walk is between 9 and 15 months, and a 20-month-old child has still not begun walking, this would be considered a developmental delay. Developmental delays can occur in all five areas of development or may just happen in one or more of those areas. Also the growth in each area of development is related to growth I the other areas. So if there is a difficulty in one area, such as speech and language, it is likely to i nfluence development in other areas like social and emotional. Children are placed at genetic risk by being born with a genetic or chromosomal abnormality. A good example of genetic risk is Down syndrome, a disorder that causes developmental delay because of an abnormal chromosome. Environmental risk results from exposure to harmful agents either before or after birth, and can include things like poor maternal nutrition or exposure to toxins like lead or drugs or infections that are passed form a mother to her baby during pregnancy. Environmental risk also includes a child’s life experiences. For example, children who are born prematurely face severe poverty, mother’s depression, poor nutrition, or lack of care and are at increased risk for developmental delays. Risk factors have a cumulative impact upon development. As the number of risk factors increases, a child is put at greater risk for developmental delay. There are several general â€Å"warning signs† of possible delay. These include: * Behavioral * Does not pay attention or stay focused on an activity for as long a time as other children of the same age * Focuses on unusual objects for long periods of time; enjoys this more than interacting with others * Avoids or rarely makes eye contact with others * Gets unusually frustrated when trying to do simple tasks that most children of the same age can do * Shows aggressive behaviors and acting out and appears to be very stubborn compared with other children * Displays violent behaviors on a daily basis * Stares into space, rocks body, or talks to self more often than other children of the same age * Does not seek love and approval from caregiver or parent * Gross motor * Has stiff arms and/or legs * Has a floppy or limp body posture compared to other children of the same age * Uses on side of body more than the other * Has a very clumsy manner compared with other children of the same age In addition, because children usually acquire developmental milestones or skills during a specific time frame or â€Å"window†, we can predict when most children will learn different skills. In the world today there are many programs for children who are experiencing developmental delays. These programs help the children catch up if it is possible and improve the skills they have. Examples of such programs include: * IEP (individualized education plan) * Early intervention services * IFSP (individualized family service plan According to the CDC the percentages of U.S. children in the age group of 3-17 years of age, 1997-2008 are as follows: * Any developmental disability * 13.87% * Learning disability * 7.66% * ADHD * 6.69% In conclusion I would say there are a lot more options today for children with developmental delays then there were years ago. We are making progress in helping our special needs children and this will continue to help them improve the quality of life that these children have in their future. I also believe that all children develop at a slightly different pace and some of the more recent diagnosis might be to quick to hand out. I am a parent of 2 special needs children one mild and one more severe so I can relate to this subject more and have a bias opinion on both sides of the discussion. 1 in every 6 U.S. children are diagnosed with a developmental disability, according to a new Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention study published online in the journal Pediatrics Monday. The represents an increase of 17% between 1997 and 2008 alone. Child development refers to the process in which children go through changes in skill development during predictable time periods, called developmental milestones. Developmental delay occurs when children have no reached these milestones by the expected time period. For example, if the normal range for learning to walk is between 9 and 15 months, and a 20-month-old child has still not begun walking, this would be considered a developmental delay. Developmental delays can occur in all five areas of development or may just happen in one or more of those areas. Also the growth in each area of development is related to growth I the other areas. So if there is a difficulty in one area, such as speech and language, it is likely to i nfluence development in other areas like social and emotional. Children are placed at genetic risk by being born with a genetic or chromosomal abnormality. A good example of genetic risk is Down syndrome, a disorder that causes developmental delay because of an abnormal chromosome. Environmental risk results from exposure to harmful agents either before or after birth, and can include things like poor maternal nutrition or exposure to toxins like lead or drugs or infections that are passed form a mother to her baby during pregnancy. Environmental risk also includes a child’s life experiences. For example, children who are born prematurely face severe poverty, mother’s depression, poor nutrition, or lack of care and are at increased risk for developmental delays. Risk factors have a cumulative impact upon development. As the number of risk factors increases, a child is put at greater risk for developmental delay. There are several general â€Å"warning signs† of possible delay. These include: * Behavioral * Does not pay attention or stay focused on an activity for as long a time as other children of the same age * Focuses on unusual objects for long periods of time; enjoys this more than interacting with others * Avoids or rarely makes eye contact with others * Gets unusually frustrated when trying to do simple tasks that most children of the same age can do * Shows aggressive behaviors and acting out and appears to be very stubborn compared with other children * Displays violent behaviors on a daily basis * Stares into space, rocks body, or talks to self more often than other children of the same age * Does not seek love and approval from caregiver or parent * Gross motor * Has stiff arms and/or legs * Has a floppy or limp body posture compared to other children of the same age * Uses on side of body more than the other * Has a very clumsy manner compared with other children of the same age In addition, because children usually acquire developmental milestones or skills during a specific time frame or â€Å"window†, we can predict when most children will learn different skills. In the world today there are many programs for children who are experiencing developmental delays. These programs help the children catch up if it is possible and improve the skills they have. Examples of such programs include: * IEP (individualized education plan) * Early intervention services * IFSP (individualized family service plan According to the CDC the percentages of U.S. children in the age group of 3-17 years of age, 1997-2008 are as follows: * Any developmental disability * 13.87% * Learning disability * 7.66% * ADHD * 6.69% In conclusion I would say there are a lot more options today for children with developmental delays then there were years ago. We are making progress in helping our special needs children and this will continue to help them improve the quality of life that these children have in their future. I also believe that all children develop at a slightly different pace and some of the more recent diagnosis might be to quick to hand out. I am a parent of 2 special needs children one mild and one more severe so I can relate to this subject more and have a bias opinion on both sides of the discussion.